We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow blogger.com more Jul 17, · Write a Paper About a Historical Figure. One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the history of psychology and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology Research has shown that there is a high incidence of depression among clients that also have chronic medical conditions such as heart disease, cancer, Alzheimer’s disease and hypertension. Treatment is geared toward managing symptoms through the use of medications and psychotherapy. A client with bipolar disorder is being seen in the
Bipolar 2 Disorder - Is This YOU? | Bipolar Lives
Bipolar disorderpreviously known as manic bipolar disorder research paperis a mood disorder characterized by periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood that last from days to weeks each. While the causes of bipolar disorder are not clearly understood, bipolar disorder research paper, both genetic and environmental factors are thought to play a role.
Mood stabilizers — lithium and certain anticonvulsants such as valproate and carbamazepine —are the mainstay of long-term relapse prevention. Late adolescence and early adulthood are peak years for the onset of bipolar disorder.
Mania can present with varying levels of mood disturbance, ranging from euphoria that is associated with "classic mania" to dysphoria and irritability. According to the DSM-5 criteria, bipolar disorder research paper, mania is distinguished from hypomania by length, as hypomania is present if elevated mood symptoms are present for at least four consecutive days, and mania is present if such symptoms are present for more than a week.
Unlike mania, hypomania is not always associated with impaired functioning, bipolar disorder research paper. Also known as a manic episode, mania is a distinct period of at least one week of elevated or irritable mood, which can range from euphoria to delirium. The core symptom of mania involves an increase in energy of psychomotor activity.
Mania can also present with increased self-esteem or grandiosityracing thoughtspressured speech that is difficult to interrupt, decreased need for sleep, disinhibited social behavior, [23] increased goal-oriented activities and impaired judgment—exhibition of behaviors characterized as impulsive or high-risk, such as hypersexuality or excessive spending.
In severe manic episodes, a person can experience psychotic symptoms, where thought content is affected along with mood. The onset of a manic or depressive episode is often foreshadowed by sleep disturbance. Hypomania is the milder form of mania, defined as at least four days of the same criteria as mania, [27] but which does not cause a significant decrease in the individual's ability to socialize or work, lacks psychotic features such as delusions or hallucinationsand does not require psychiatric hospitalization.
Hypomania may feel good to some persons who experience it, though most people who experience hypomania state that the stress of the experience is very painful. Even when family and friends recognize mood swingsthe individual will often bipolar disorder research paper that anything is wrong, bipolar disorder research paper.
The earlier the age of onset, the more likely the first few episodes are to be depressive. In bipolar disorder, a mixed state is an episode during which symptoms of both mania and depression occur simultaneously. The diagnosis of bipolar disorder can be complicated by coexisting comorbid psychiatric conditions including obsessive—compulsive disordersubstance-use disordereating disordersattention deficit hyperactivity disordersocial phobiapremenstrual syndrome including premenstrual dysphoric disorderor panic disorder.
Substance abuse is a common comorbidity in bipolar disorder, the subject has been widely reviewed. The causes of bipolar disorder likely vary between individuals and the exact mechanism underlying the disorder remains unclear.
The cause of bipolar disorders overlaps with major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder research paper. Behavioral genetic studies have suggested that many chromosomal regions and candidate genes are related to bipolar disorder susceptibility with each gene exerting a mild to moderate effect. Although the first genetic linkage finding for mania was in[51] linkage studies have been inconsistent.
Due to the inconsistent findings in a genome-wide association studybipolar disorder research paper, multiple studies have undertaken the approach of analyzing SNPs in biological pathways. Signaling pathways traditionally associated with bipolar disorder that have been supported by these studies include corticotropin-releasing hormone signaling, cardiac β-adrenergic signaling, Phospholipase C signaling, glutamate receptor signaling, [56] cardiac hypertrophy signaling, Wnt signalingNotch signaling[57] and endothelin 1 signaling.
Of the 16 genes identified in these pathways, three were found to be dysregulated in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex portion of the brain in post-mortem studies: CACNA1CGNG2and ITPR2. Bipolar disorder is associated with reduced expression of specific DNA repair enzymes and increased levels of oxidative DNA damages.
Psychosocial factors play a significant role in the development and course of bipolar disorder, and individual psychosocial variables may interact with genetic dispositions. Less commonly, bipolar disorder or a bipolar-like disorder may occur as a result of or bipolar disorder research paper association with a neurological condition or injury bipolar disorder research paper stroketraumatic brain injuryHIV infectionmultiple sclerosisporphyriaand rarely temporal lobe epilepsy.
The precise mechanisms that cause bipolar disorder are not well understood. Bipolar disorder is thought bipolar disorder research paper be associated with abnormalities in the structure and function of certain brain areas responsible for cognitive tasks and the processing of emotions.
Meta-analyses of structural MRI studies have shown that certain bipolar disorder research paper regions e. Additionally, these meta-analyses found that people with bipolar disorder have higher rates of deep white matter hyperintensities. Functional MRI findings suggest that the vPFC regulates the limbic systemespecially the amygdala. However, while pharmacological treatment of mania reduces amygdala hyperactivity, bipolar disorder research paper, it remains more active than the amygdala of those without bipolar disorder, suggesting amygdala activity may be a marker of the disorder rather than the current mood state.
Manic episodes appear to be associated with decreased activation of the right vPFC whereas depressive episodes are associated with decreased activation of the left vPFC. People with bipolar disorder who are in a euthymic mood state show decreased activity in the lingual gyrus compared to people without bipolar disorder. Neuroscientists have proposed additional models to try to explain the cause of bipolar bipolar disorder research paper. One proposed model for bipolar disorder suggests that hypersensitivity of reward circuits bipolar disorder research paper of frontostriatal circuits causes mania, and decreased sensitivity of these circuits causes depression.
There is evidence supporting an association between early-life stress and dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis leading to its overactivation, which may play a role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder. Dopaminea neurotransmitter responsible for mood cycling, has increased transmission during the manic phase.
This results in decreased dopamine transmission characteristic of the depressive phase. Medications used to treat bipolar may exert their effect by modulating intracellular signaling, such as through depleting myo- inositol levels, inhibition of cAMP signalingand through altering subunits of the dopamine-associated G-protein, bipolar disorder research paper.
Decreased levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acida byproduct of serotoninare present in the cerebrospinal fluid of persons with bipolar disorder during both the depressed and manic phases. Increased dopaminergic activity has been hypothesized in manic states due to the ability of dopamine agonists to stimulate mania in people with bipolar disorder.
Decreased sensitivity of regulatory α 2 adrenergic receptors as well as increased cell counts in the locus coeruleus indicated increased noradrenergic activity in manic people. Low plasma GABA levels on both sides of the mood spectrum have bipolar disorder research paper found. VMAT2 binding was found to be increased in one study of people with bipolar mania.
Bipolar disorder is commonly diagnosed during adolescence or early adulthood, but onset can occur throughout life. Caregiver-scored rating scales, specifically from the mother, have shown to be more accurate than teacher and youth-scored reports in identifying youths with bipolar disorder.
The most widely used criteria for diagnosing bipolar disorder are from the American Psychiatric Association 's APA Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental DisordersFifth Edition DSM-5 and the World Health Organization 's WHO International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems10th Edition ICD The ICD criteria are used more often in clinical settings outside of the U.
while bipolar disorder research paper DSM criteria are used within the U. and are the prevailing criteria used internationally in research studies. The DSM-5, published inincludes further and more accurate specifiers compared to its predecessor, the DSM-IV-TR. Several rating scales bipolar disorder research paper the screening and evaluation of bipolar disorder exist, [90] including the Bipolar spectrum diagnostic scaleMood Disorder Questionnairethe General Behavior Inventory and the Hypomania Checklist.
Bipolar disorder is classified by the International Classification of Diseases as a mental and behavioural disorder. Neurologic diseases such as multiple sclerosiscomplex partial seizuresstrokesbrain tumors, Wilson's diseasetraumatic brain injuryHuntington's diseaseand complex migraines can mimic features of bipolar disorder. Infectious causes of mania that may appear similar to bipolar mania include herpes encephalitisHIVinfluenzaor neurosyphilis. Bipolar spectrum disorders include: bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, cyclothymic disorder and cases where subthreshold symptoms are found to cause clinically significant impairment or distress.
The DSM and the ICD characterize bipolar disorder as a spectrum of disorders occurring on a continuum. The DSM-5 and ICD lists three specific subtypes: [5] [89]. When relevant, specifiers for peripartum onset and with rapid cycling should be used with any subtype. Individuals who have subthreshold symptoms that cause clinically significant distress or impairment, but do not meet full criteria for one of the three subtypes may be diagnosed with other specified or unspecified bipolar disorder.
Other specified bipolar disorder is used when a clinician chooses to explain why the full criteria were not met e. Most people who meet criteria for bipolar disorder experience a number of episodes, on average 0. It is defined as having four or more mood disturbance episodes within a one-year span.
Rapid cycling is usually temporary but is common amongst people with bipolar disorder and affects between In the s, Kraepelin noted that manic episodes are rare before puberty.
This issue diminished with an increased following of the DSM criteria in the last part of the twentieth century. Depressive episodes more commonly present with sleep disturbance, fatigue, hopelessness about the future, slowed thinking, bipolar disorder research paper, and poor concentration and memory; the last three symptoms are seen in what is known as pseudodementia.
Clinical features also differ between those with late-onset bipolar disorder and those who developed it early in life; the former group present with milder manic episodes, more prominent cognitive changes bipolar disorder research paper have a background of worse psychosocial functioning, while the latter present more commonly with mixed affective episodes, [] and have a stronger family history of illness.
Attempts at prevention of bipolar disorder have focused on stress such as childhood adversity or highly conflictual families which, bipolar disorder research paper, although not a diagnostically specific causal agent for bipolar, does place genetically and biologically vulnerable individuals at risk for a more severe course of illness.
The aim of management is to treat acute episodes safely with medication and work with the patient in long-term bipolar disorder research paper to prevent further episodes and optimise function using a combination of pharmacological and psychotherapeutic techniques. This can be voluntary or local legislation permitting involuntary.
Long-term inpatient stays are now less common due to deinstitutionalizationalthough these can still occur. These are sometimes referred to as partial-inpatient programs. Psychotherapy aims to assist a person with bipolar disorder in accepting and understanding their diagnosis, coping with various types of stress, improving their interpersonal relationships, and recognizing prodromal symptoms before full-blown recurrence.
Most studies have been based only on bipolar I, however, and treatment during the acute phase can be a particular challenge. Medications may differ depending on what episode is being treated.
Some analyses indicate antipsychotics alone are also more effective at treating acute mania. Lithium and the anticonvulsants carbamazepinelamotrigineand valproic acid are classed as mood stabilizers due to their effect on the mood states in bipolar disorder.
Antipsychotic medications are effective for short-term treatment of bipolar manic episodes and appear to be superior to lithium and anticonvulsants for this purpose. Antidepressants are not recommended for use alone in the treatment of bipolar disorder and do not provide any benefit over mood stabilizers. Short courses of benzodiazepines are used in addition to other medications for calming effect until mood stabilizing become effective.
ECT is also recommended for use in pregnant women with bipolar disorder. Treating bipolar disorder in children involves medication and psychotherapy. The occurrence of poor response to treatment in has given support to the concept of resistance to treatment in bipolar disorder. A lifelong condition with periods of partial or full recovery in between recurrent episodes of relapse, [37] [] bipolar disorder is considered to be a major health problem worldwide because of the increased rates of disability and premature mortality.
Compliance with medications is one of the most significant factors that can decrease the rate and severity of relapse and have a positive impact on overall prognosis. Early recognition and intervention also improve prognosis as the symptoms in earlier stages are less severe and more responsive to treatment. For women, better social functioning before developing bipolar disorder and being a parent are protective towards suicide attempts.
Changes in cognitive processes bipolar disorder research paper abilities are seen in mood disorders, with those of bipolar disorder being greater than those in major depressive disorder. As a result, two-thirds of people with BD continue to experience impaired psychosocial functioning in between episodes even when their mood symptoms are in full remission.
A similar pattern is seen in both BD-I and BD-II, but people with BD-II experience a lesser degree of impairment. When bipolar disorder occurs in children, it severely and adversely affects their psychosocial development. Higher degrees of impairment correlate with the number of previous manic episodes and hospitalizations, and with the presence of psychotic symptoms. Despite the overly ambitious goals that are frequently part of manic episodes, symptoms of mania undermine the ability to achieve these goals and often interfere with an individual's social and occupational functioning.
One-third of people with BD remain unemployed for one year following a hospitalization for mania.
Bipolar disorder (depression \u0026 mania) - causes, symptoms, treatment \u0026 pathology
, time: 6:55Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder, previously known as manic depression, is a mood disorder characterized by periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood that last from days to weeks each. If the elevated mood is severe or associated with psychosis, it is called mania; if it is less severe, it is called hypomania. During mania, an individual behaves or feels abnormally energetic, happy, or Jul 17, · Write a Paper About a Historical Figure. One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the history of psychology and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology Research has shown that there is a high incidence of depression among clients that also have chronic medical conditions such as heart disease, cancer, Alzheimer’s disease and hypertension. Treatment is geared toward managing symptoms through the use of medications and psychotherapy. A client with bipolar disorder is being seen in the
No comments:
Post a Comment