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Stoicism was one of the new philosophical movements of the Hellenistic period. The name derives from the porch stoa poikilê in the Agora at Athens decorated with mural paintings, where the members of the school congregated, and their lectures were held.
The Stoics did, in fact, hold that emotions like fear or envy or impassioned sexual attachments, or passionate love of anything whatsoever either were, or arose from, false judgements and that the sage — a person who had attained moral and intellectual perfection — would not undergo them.
It does not, however, hint at the even more radical ethical views which the Stoics defended, e. that only the sage is free while all others are slaves, or that all those who are morally vicious are equally so.
Though it seems clear that some Stoics took a kind of perverse joy in advocating views which seem so at odds with common sense, they did not do so simply to shock.
Stoic ethics achieves a certain plausibility within the context of their physical theory and psychology, and within the framework of Greek ethical theory as that was handed down to them from Plato and Aristotle, dissertation background context. It seems that they were well aware of the mutually interdependent nature of their philosophical views, likening philosophy itself to a living animal in which logic is bones and sinews; ethics and physics, the flesh and the soul respectively another version reverses this assignment, making ethics the soul.
Their views in logic and physics are no less distinctive and interesting than those in ethics itself. Here, however, we meet with the problem about the sources of our knowledge about Stoicism.
Chrysippus was particularly prolific, composing over works, but we have only fragments of his works. The only complete works by Stoic philosophers that we possess are those by writers of Imperial times, Seneca 4 BCE—65 CEEpictetus c. They tend to be long on moral exhortation but give only clues to the theoretical bases of the moral system.
For detailed information about the Old Stoa i. CE — and their sources Aetius ca. CE and Arius Didymus 1st c. BCE—CE — or other philosophers or Christian apologists who discuss the Stoics for their own purposes.
Nearly all of the latter group are hostile witnesses. Among them are the Aristotelian commentator Alexander of Aphrodisias late 2nd c. CE who criticises the Stoics in On Mixture and On Fateamong other works; the Platonist Plutarch of Chaeronea 1st-2nd c. CE who authored works such as On Stoic Self-Contradictions and Against the Stoics on Common Conceptions ; the medical writer Galen 2nd c.
CEwhose outlook is roughly Platonist; the Pyrrhonian skeptic, Sextus Empiricus 2nd c. CE ; Plotinus 3rd c. CE ; the Christian bishops Eusebius 3rd—4th c. CE and Nemesius ca. Another important source is Cicero 1st c. Though his own philosophical position derives from that of his teacher Philo of Larissa and the New Academy, he is not without sympathy for what he sees dissertation background context the high moral tone of Stoicism.
In works like his Academic BooksOn the Nature of the Godsand On Ends he provides summaries in Latin, with critical discussion, of the views of the major Hellenistic schools of thought.
From these sources, scholars have attempted to piece together a picture of the content, dissertation background context, and in some cases, the development of Stoic doctrine. In some areas, there is a fair bit of consensus about what the Stoics thought and we can even attach names to some particular innovations. However, in other areas the proper interpretation of our meagre evidence is hotly contested, dissertation background context.
Until recently, non-specialists have been largely excluded from the debate because many important sources were not translated into modern languages. Fragments of Stoic works and testimonia in their original Greek and Latin were collected into a three-volume set in —5 by H. von Arnim, Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta. SVF I. InA. Long and David Sedley brought out The Hellenistic Philosophers LS which contains in its first volume English translations and commentary of many important texts on Stoics, dissertation background context, Epicureans and Skeptics.
In Long and Sedley was followed by a collection of primary texts edited by B. Inwood and L, dissertation background context.
Gerson entitled Hellenistic Philosophy. The Inwood and Gerson collection translates many of the same texts, but unlike LS does not chop them up into smaller bits classified by dissertation background context. Each approach has its merits, but the LS collection better serves the needs of an encyclopedia entry. For French translation of Chrysippus, see Dufour For German translation of the early Stoa, see Nickel For additional information, see also the entry on doxography of ancient philosophy.
When considering the doctrines of the Stoics, it is important to remember that they think of philosophy not as dissertation background context interesting pastime or even a particular body dissertation background context knowledge, but as a way of life. They define philosophy as a kind of practice or exercise askêsis in the expertise concerning what is beneficial Aetius, 26A, dissertation background context.
Once we come to know what we and the world around us are really like, and especially the nature of value, we will be utterly transformed. This therapeutic aspect is common to their main competitors, dissertation background context, the Epicureans, and perhaps helps to explain why both were eventually eclipsed by Christianity, dissertation background context.
The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius provide a fascinating dissertation background context of a would-be Stoic sage at work on himself.
In it, he not only dissertation background context himself of the content of important Stoic teaching but also reproaches himself when he realises that he has failed to incorporate this teaching into his life in some particular instance.
Today many people still turn to Stoicism as a form of psychological discipline. One of the most influential modern interpretations of means through which the Stoic philosophizing accomplished such a transformation introduces the notion of spiritual exercises. For a more general treatment covering Stoic philosophy as a whole, dissertation background context, see Sellars For a recent discussion of the entire question of philosophy as a way — or rather as many ways — of life in antiquity, see Cooper Brunschwig There d-ePlato asks for a mark or indication of what is real or what has being.
Thus, only bodies exist. However, dissertation background context, they also hold that there are other ways of appearing in the complete inventory of the world than by virtue of existing. The distinction between the subsistent and the existent somewhat complicates the easy assimilation of Stoicism to modern materialism. All existent things are, in addition, particulars. But there may well have been development within the school from this conceptualist view toward a form of predicate nominalism.
See Caston In accord with this ontology, the Stoics, like the Epicureans, make God a corporeal entity, though not as with the Epicureans one made of everyday matter.
But while the Epicureans think the gods are too busy being blessed and happy to be bothered with the governance of the universe Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus —4the Stoic God is immanent throughout the whole of creation and directs dissertation background context development down to the smallest detail.
The governing metaphor for Stoic cosmology is biologicalin contrast to the dissertation background context mechanical conception of the Epicureans, dissertation background context. The Stoics insistence that only bodies are capable of causing anything, however, guarantees that this cosmic life force must be conceived of as somehow corporeal.
More specifically, God is identical with one of the two ungenerated and indestructible first principles archai of the universe. One principle is matter dissertation background context they regard as utterly unqualified and inert. It is that which is acted upon. God is identified with an eternal reason logosDiog, dissertation background context. The designing fire is likened to sperm or seed which contains the first dissertation background context or directions of all the things which will subsequently develop Aristocles in Eusebius, 46G.
The biological conception of God as a kind of living heat or seed from which things grow seems to be fully intended. The further identification of God with pneuma or breath may have its origins in medical theories of the Hellenistic period.
See Baltzly On the entire issue of God and its relation to the cosmos in Stoicism, see the essays in Salles Just as living things have a life-cycle that is witnessed in parents and then again in their off-spring, so too the universe has a life cycle that is repeated.
This life cycle is guided by, or equivalent to, a developmental plan that is identified with God. This idea of world-cycles punctuated by conflagrations raised a number of questions. Will there be another you reading this encyclopedia entry in the next dissertation background context cycle?
Or merely someone exactly similar to you? Different sources attribute different answers to the Stoics on these questions. For sameness of person, see Alexander 52F. For someone indistinguishable, but not not identical, dissertation background context Origen 52G.
The doctrine of eternal recurrence also raises interesting questions about the Stoic view of time. Did they suppose that the moment in dissertation background context next world cycle at which you or someone indistinguishable from you reads this entry is a moment in the future so time is linear or the very same moment with some notion of circular time?
For a clear exchange on the issue, dissertation background context, see Long and Hudson The first things to develop from the conflagration are the elements. Of the four elements, the Stoics identify two as active fire and air and two as passive water and earth. The active elements, or at least the principles of hot and cold, dissertation background context, combine to form breath or pneuma, dissertation background context.
What is a sustaining cause? The Stoics think that the universe is a plenum. Like Aristotle, they reject the existence of empty space or void except that the universe as a whole is surrounded by it. The answer is: pneuma. Pneuma passes through all other bodies; in its outward motion it gives them the qualities that they have, and in its inward motion makes them unified objects Nemesius, dissertation background context, 47J.
an individual Metaph, dissertation background context. VII, Perhaps as a result of this, they developed a theory of mixture which allowed for two bodies to be in the same place at the same time. It should be noted, however, dissertation background context, that some scholars e.
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, time: 5:05Stoicism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Apply to UWM. The UW System application is the easiest option for students applying only to UWM and other UW System schools. The Common App is the best option for new freshman students also applying to private colleges and out-of-state schools Feb 27, · Step 1: Introduce the topic and context. Begin by leading into your broad topic and giving any necessary background information. Aim to spark interest and show why this is a timely or important topic for a dissertation (for example, by mentioning a relevant news item, debate, or practical problem) Jan 07, · Provide preliminary background information that puts your research in context. Clarify the focus of your study. While you may have a glossary or list of abbreviations included in your dissertation, your background section offers some opportunity for
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